南京大学考博真题

南京大学考博真题（精选5篇）

1.南京大学考博真题 篇一

2016年南开大学公共政策考博复试线考博真题考博参考书 考生类别院 系 所 码 院系所名 称 专业名称 外 语 业 务 课 1 业 务

课 2 总 分 复试权重

普通招考115周恩来政府 管理学院

政治学理论、中外 政治制度、国际关

系60606021540%社会学、人口学、社会心理学60606021540%行政管理、教育经 济与管理60606022040% 注:已获硕士学位者和应届硕士毕业生不再参加思想政治理论科目考试。专业代码、名称 及研究方向

指导教师人数考试科目备注 44 120401行政管理

05公共政策①0001思想政治理论②

1001英语、1002日语选 一③2704行政管理学④ 3724政策理论 考博常见问题

一、考博需要注意的五大事项

1、目标明确

确定了考博,第一件事是先确定报考学校和导师,不要再对考博的前景三心二意。考博虽然不意味着成功,但至少是人生的一个重要转折点,特别是对于非名校毕业的硕士来说,考个名校博士肯定是得大于失。不要同时准备两所学校,人的精力毕竟有限。

2、复习时间六个月以上

能拿到硕士学位再考博的,都差不到哪儿去,想要超越对手,时间是一个宝贵的因素。复习时间越长,对考试内容的熟悉程度必然越深。当然每个人的情况不同,复习很短时间就能考博成功的案例比比皆是。

3、复习方法正确

各个学校都有自己的风格。复习时一定要找到该校出题的规律,切不可到书

店找一些资料搞题海战术,要知道,一门课程出到卷子上可能只有二道题,如果你有心把该校近五六年考博卷拿出来看一看,再把近几年的研究生的期末考试题拿来研究一下,估计你可以做出题老师了。在这方面,外校学生一般会吃大亏,因为有些课

程的题目是该校的特色题,且不谈题目你没看到过,就算是题目提前给你,你翻遍书店可能都找不到答案。如果说考博有什么捷径的话,应该就在于此。

4、导师关系处理恰当,否则你面试、调剂时可能会有麻烦

一般来说,如果你的技能与导师的项目很对口,或者你在什么核心期刊上发表与导师的研究课题相关的论文,那他肯定会同意你报考。如果你不具备上述条件,那么找导师的熟人介绍一下,导师一般也会要你。还不具备的话,那你就脸皮厚一点,让他明白你为报考他的博士,付出了很多,导师也是人,会有同情心的,不要因为一次拒绝丧失信心。实在不行的话,换一位试试,总有导师会要你的。不过有一点要记住,导师招学生最根本的衡量准则是你的考分,你成绩不靠前,导师也很难帮你。

5、经济上要有一定的支撑

包括人际关系费用,找该校的对口复习资料费用,报辅导班的费用,考试费等等,该花的最好不要省,只要是对考博成功有利的。因为这些钱对于博士生出来后的待遇来说太微不足道了。

二、专业课如何复习

对待专业课的认识,有些考生以为自己学了这么多年本专业,甚至发表了不少文章,专业课应该没问题了,从而放松了对自己专业课复习的要求。其实现在博士录取时,各个环节都不能放松。即使及格了,如果成绩较低,总分排名靠居后,也会影响导师对自己的印象。提高专业课的复习效率,育明考博告诉大家可以分为以下两个阶段: 1.了解学术动态

考生在确定了报考的局势和研究方向以后,要立刻在招生简章或报考学校的网站上查到复习的参考资料。一定要翻翻近两年专业杂志,看看大家讨论的热点问题,浏览一下报考学校近三年的学报,了解本专业发表的论文。最好在考前就有关热点问题加以思考,提出自己的观点和看法。尤其需要强调一点,考生应查看导师近五年中发表的文章以及导师近年的专著,有些观点、数据、理论要掌握,特别是有关老师 的论文一定要熟记于心,遇到类似的题目可以搬上去,这对于提高你的成绩会大有裨益。特别要注意教师在一些有争议的问题上的观点和立场,围绕这种问题,时间允许的话最好再收集相关资料。往往导师会在这些问题上考察学生。导师招收博士,也是寻求合作者的过程,如果发现一个对自己近两年研究的领域知之甚多,甚至观点也和自己相容或相似,势必会给导师带来好的印象。可以提前和该导师的博士生取得联系,要求提供去年的专业课考试的考题(一般专业课试题有10%一30%的重复率,而各高校却不提供专业课考题,或者要求他提供第一学期的专业课笔记(老师近期关注的重点大多都在其中,也可以请他大致谈谈考试出题的倾向以及考试的感受和经验。自己做不到这一点的话,可以寻求辅导班的帮助,省时省力。

2.复习阶段

花半个月时间收集全资料后,应拟订一个大致的复习计划,内容包括时间和进度安排、复习方式、自查形式等等。这里需要注意的是: 在时间上,专业课的复习要留有充足的时间,越往后复习密度应逐渐力加强。

在精力安排要详略得当。一般要求复习教材内容至少三遍。第一遍,对教材有一个大致的把握,这本教材谈了哪些方面的问题,相互之间是什么样的逻辑体系。第二遍,画出重点内容,并适当记忆,掌握该教材的一般知识点,尤其是该书的精华部分和大致脉络、主要观点应非常清楚。个人看书习惯可能不同,既可以做读书笔记,也可以就在书上画,然后再整理出一个个的理论、观点。这里要注意学会比较研究的方法,即比较各个理论之间的异同,从而确立自己的立场。对研究领域当前的热点问题,尽可能找些资料看看,并初步思考这些问题以使自己有一个较为明确的观点,有心得的地方应专门记录下来。如果说前两遍是考生自我学习消化的过程,第三遍则是直

接为考试做准备的,应放在离考试日期较近的时间内(以一个月内为宜。其目的就是为了使自己前面学到的东西不至于在考场上反映不出来。

复习内容上有一点需单独强调,即对所考的课程,均要阅读几本非指定考试用书。很多导师喜欢出书评一类的题型。

对于跨专业报考的考生而言,难度往往比较大。一定要分析好自己的优势和劣势后再决定报考。在复习时也可以适当兼顾以前的专业犷笔试和面试要让导师感觉到你原专业功底比较扎实,报考该专业是个人研究兴趣的转向而不是自己在原专业上失败了才改换门庭。不过复习专业课时,所准备的时间和精力要明显增加,时间分配要向专业课倾斜。同时,在复习专业课时,要从报考专业的基本教材看起,学习该专业硕士生甚至本科生的课程,对一般课程大致浏览,有一个宏观的把握就行。而对考试指定课程,则应反复阅读,重点突破。

对于应届毕业生而言,专业课复习有优势也有劣势。优势一是自己的硕士论文刚做,对本专业的理论,特别是前沿理论以及当前的热点问题掌握得较全面;二是如果是报考本校的导师可以较方便地找到有资料,甚至可以提前一两个学期选修该导师的专业课,从而在专业和感情上与老师靠近,这对下一步的面试很重要。劣势一是不少硕士生精力投放在找工作上以使接触该专业时间较短;二是缺乏具体实践经验和社会资本。

三、考博英语如何复习

硕士阶段的学习使考生在专业课部分很难拉开分数。反倒是英语科目,由于基础和水平的参差不齐,会影响到考试整体的分数档次,考博英语难吗?如何复习达到高效?

1、题型由于考博英语试题由各招生单位自己独立命题,所以不同院校的考博英语试题题型风格不尽相同。就题型而言,一般都含有词汇结构、完形填空、阅读理解、汉英互译、作文题。很多院校初试不再考听力,而在复试通过口语形式考查。但有些院校仍在初试考查听力,甚至很重视听力分数。有些学校还有改错题,应用文，甚至其他题型。少数院校不考作文,但翻译比较长。很多院校主观题的分数所占比重都较高,占1/3甚至1/2比重。

2、难度考博英语重视考查翻译、写作等与攻读博士学位相关的应用能力,所以其难度不能简单与其他考试比较。但一般来说,考博英语试题的难度约相当于大学英语六级,但少数院校比六级难,有些院校甚至只相当于四级水平,甚至同一院校不同年份的难易程度也迥异。这是由于考博英语试题的命制没有其他英语水平考试、选拔考试规范,往往因出题人不同而有区别。所以,报考相应院校的考生一定要看一看该院校近年的考博英语真题。给大家推荐河北大学出版社出版的,北外夏岩教授主编的《考博英语真题解析》。

3、词汇保守估计,考博英语需要掌握7000~8000单词,900常用动词短

语。当然,一般掌握了六级及硕士研究生入学考试的词汇,通过考博英语也没有多大问题,只是词汇题可能失去少数分数。长期关注和研究考博英语试题,反对有些所谓考博英语词汇书所讲的考博需要掌握1万甚至1万以上词汇的观点。事实上,背诵那么多词汇是没有多大意义的,考博英语考查的重点不是考生掌握了多少词汇,而如上文所述,是阅读、翻译、写作能力。所以,词汇够用即可,建议复习自己当年很熟悉的考研词汇、六级词汇,然后略加拓展,如可看看公共英语等级考试五级词汇、新托福词汇、部分GRE词汇。有些院校公布了词汇表或参考词汇表,但实际出题人并不怎么按大纲出题。英语说到底还是个水平问题。

4、语法大部分院校考博英语试题都不直接考查语法,但语法有必要全面复习一下。这也不怎么花费时间。

5、阅读可以做一做对应院校的考题,也可做一做考研阅读真题、大学英语六级真题,有些院校考博英语试题选自考研真题原题、六级真题原题。

6、翻译英译汉相对来说比较好做,但不好得分。相反,汉译英虽然看起来难,但往往容易得分。所以应该多准备。

关于翻译部分,针对词汇空缺现象,在词汇的借用、引用方面通常采取四种形式:音译、直译、改编、意译。

音译:人名、地名以及一些表示新概念而本族语里又找不到对成词来表示时,均可采用音译法介绍到译文语言中去,如:[汉译英]磕头(kowtow,荔枝(litchi;[英译汉]、engine(引擎,motor(马达,sofa(沙发,logic(逻辑直译:paper tiger(纸老虎,lose face(丢脸,Seeing is believing.(百闻不如一见。Out of mind,out of sight.(眼不见,心不烦

改编:所谓“改编”指的是音译或直译如意义补充的翻译,在翻译的“改编法”中,译者总是一方面尽可能保持原文语言的特性,另一方面更希望译文含义明朗,使读者一目了然。

比如,汉语的“班门弄斧”这个成语,可译成This is like showing off one’s proficiency with the axe before Lu Ban the master carpenter其中,“鲁班”变成了“Lu Ban the mater carpenter"否则鲁班究竟是什么人,不知道典故的外国读者就会感到茫然。这类译法在英译中比较常见,如巧克力糖(chocolate,鸦片烟(opium,高尔夫球(golf,来福枪(rifle,尼龙布(nylon。

4、意译法:填补语言中的词汇、语义空缺,采用“并行法”即意译法是一种常见的有效方法。如果某一语言观象,在译文语言中只的用意义相同的不同语言形式即“并行”的词汇来翻译时,那么就等于说译文语言的形式中存在着一个“空缺”。比如,有许多词以及由这些词代表的思想概念,最先只存在于某种语言中,当把这些词或概念介绍到另一种语言中去时,我们可采取音译,直译法,同时也可采用意译法,而且意译译文可从语音、语法、语义等方面都合乎译文语言的规范,因此最易为读者接受。比如:communism,democracy,和proletariat等外来词变成“共产主义”“民主”和”无产者”时,可以说最先是意译的结果。同时,由于“共产主义”,“无产者”等完全是按我们汉语的构词规则,用汉语的构词材料构成的。因此,这种意译只不过是属于一种概念的借鉴而已。

7、作文一般都是命题作文,即给定题目写一篇200-250词的议论文。作文应当认真准备。这是容易得分也容易失分的项目。

考博辅导的流程

我们育明教育针对这一专业的辅导一共有七轮,第一轮讲授报名的方法和注意事项,专家推荐书的注意事项,如何联系导师,如何写作博士期间的攻读计划,考博英语考试的技巧和准备方法,研究成果和个人陈述的技术性处理等,本部分不算课时;第二轮是对核心参考书的分析讲解,主要是理清学科的发展史,掌握每一个阶段的主要理论,代表人物,提出背景和评价,最终构建起完整的学科框架;第三轮在第二轮的基础上进行常考专题的讲解,是对第二轮和深化和凝练;第四轮是针对真题的难度深度广度灵活度和缜密度以及出题老师的特点,就出题老师的学科背景,研究重点,上课的笔记讲稿,论文,研究课题成果等进行深度讲解;第五轮是就最新的理论前沿和学科热点结合现实的热点进行拔高应用性讲解;第六轮是模拟练习,教会考生怎么破题,怎么安排结构,怎么突出创新点等答题技巧;第七轮是面试指导。主要包括:如何做一个有特色、有伏笔、有吸引力的自我介绍,如何着装,语气语调神态肢体动作练习,英语口语集训及问答,模拟面试等。相信经过这七轮的立体化无死角的复习,一定能考出理想的成绩。考博英语

虽然说XX学校自己命题,但是考试的难度和题型是非常中规中矩的,和其他学校没有什么大的区别,其实各个学校的考博英语都没有多大的区别。为什么每一个学校都不公布考博英语的真题呢?很大一个原因就是存在互相抄袭的情况,有的都到了让人叹为观止的地步。英语这门学科和专业课的准备方法很不相同,英语必须要有实力,我们提倡“高能高分,高分高能”,实力是最重要的。但是不是让大家漫无目的的学,准备考博英语是有方法的,我们聘请了研究考博英语的专家北外英语系系主任夏岩教授作为考博英语课题组长,在研究各个学校的考题的基础上,发现了各个学校

出题很有共性,在此基础上夏教授牵头编写了一套资料,包括词汇、完型、翻译、作文、语法等九部分,凡是用过的同学无不受益匪浅。其中《考博英语真题解析》这本书已经由河北工业大学出版社正式出版了,这本书是夏岩教授精心挑选的引用率最高的学校的试题,你好好做做,考试的时候说不定就有惊喜。

资料来源:育明考研考博官网

2.南京大学考博真题 篇二

关键词：考博英语写作

题目：

近些年学术界出现了，学者们盲目追求发表文章的数量，而忽视文章质量的现象，请以“quantity and quality of works”为题目阐明个人观点，书写工整、字数不少于300字。考博.中国

参考范文：

The past years witnessed considerable improvement in scientific research in this country.One typical sign is the mounting number of papers published in SCI and SSCI periodicals.However, the quality of many such papers and works is doubtable.One proof is that the average citation frequency of these papers has remained unchanged for years.This phenomenon has given rise to heated debate.Personally, I believe that this phenomenon should be viewed from more than one perspective.On the one hand, it must be admitted that there has appeared an undesirable trend in Chinese academic circle in the past years, that is, too much emphasis has been put on the number of papers published rather than the quality of these papers, or substantial efforts and contribution in scientific research.Taking a look around, one can find examples too many to enumerate.The number of papers, especially the number of papers published in SCI or SSCI periodicals has been regarded as the most important or the single criteria in uating a scientific researcher.It is even directly related to his salary and opportunity for promotion.This trend has led Chinese academy to an unhealthy road of development.As we can see, many scholars have become more of writers than researchers.Some even plagiarize in order to publish more papers.On the other hand, however, we should not hastily say no to the quantitative uation of scientific researchers.In fact, the number of papers is a critical index in measuring the achievement of a scholar or an academic institution.As we can see, nations with developed sciences rank among the top in SCI and SSCI publications.Quantitative uation is especially necessary in some disciplines in China where there are not sufficient experts to give an objective assessment.To sum up, we should not go to extremes in this matter.While we should continue to adopt the quantity of works as an index in uating scientific researchers, we should not lay as much emphasis on it as we did.Instead, more freedom and a looser environment should be provided for researchers so that they can give full play to their talent.Only in this way can we expect a boom of science in this country.考博英语怎么复习？http://kaobo.b2cedu.com/yingyu_fuxi.html 考博英语真题汇总专题http://kaobo.b2cedu.com/kaobo_zhenti.html 2012考博英语词汇http://kaobo.b2cedu.com/kaobo_yingyu_cihui.html 2012考博英语作文模板http://kaobo.b2cedu.com/kaobo_yingyu_zuowen.html

3.南京大学考博真题 篇三

2.水电解质酸碱平衡失调的治疗原则（8分）3.若病人体液急性丧失达体重的5%，有何临床表现？ 4.等渗性缺水5%的临床表现？ 5.等渗性缺水的机体代偿机制？ 6.低渗性缺水的原因。（4分）

7.急性等渗性失水的主要临床症状是什么？ 8.代谢性酸中毒的病因、表现及诊断。9.代谢性酸中毒的病因、临床表现及诊断 10.低钙血症常见于那些疾病？临床表现？ 11.高钾血症的概念，原因，治疗？ 12.多器官衰竭诊断标准 13.MODS的中英文名称及定义 14.MODS的常见外科病因 15.引起MODS的常见外科病因。16.SIRS的中英文全名及诊断的临床指标？

17.急性肾功能衰竭少尿期或无尿期的水电解质酸碱平衡有哪些？ 18.休克引起心功能障碍的原因有那些？ 19.休克指数是什么及临床意义 20.感染性休克的治疗原则（6分）21.感染性休克的治疗原则。22.感染性休克的治疗原则

23.感染性休克治疗中皮质类固醇激素的作用（5分）24.什么是脓毒症和菌血症？ 25.什么是脓毒症、菌血症（3.5分）26.引起脓毒血症的常见病因？ 27.手部无人区

28.手术器械消毒的条件。

29.手术器械消毒方法应该具有的条件。

30.简述手臂洗手消毒后为何还需戴消毒手套？ 31.在手术切口铺无菌巾或者贴无菌敷料的目的？ 32.临床诊疗过程中如何预防潜在的HIV感染？

33.伤口按表现不同如何分类？手术切口愈合如何分级？试举例说明。34.晚期癌症三阶梯治疗方案,列举每阶段两种以上代表药物 35.心肺复苏术中初期复苏治疗措施

36.SIRL写出中英文全称，及临床指标（5分）37.简述创伤的并发症（3分）

38.简述输血的并发症或不良反应（5分）39.与成分输血相比，输全血有何缺点（3分 40.简述肠外营养的并发症（10 41.输血的常见并发症。42.肠外营养的适应症及禁忌症。43.输血的并发症 44.肠外营养的指征及禁忌症 45.简述外科营养代谢并发症有哪些？

46.什么是 BMI ？如何测算及对营养状态诊断的标准？ 47.简述外科感染联合抗炎的适应症。48.简述破伤风的处理原则。

49.肠内营养同肠外营养比较，有哪些特点？

50.破伤风的病原体特点，为预防破伤风，早期治疗有哪些？ 51.心脏疾病可增加病人术后死亡的风险，Goldman指数哪两项得分最高？

52.大出血输血的适应症？（这个题目确实是这样，但是大出血不就是输血的适应症么？不管他，咱们把知道的全部往上写就不会错！）53.外科病人真菌感染的致病因素及列出不少于两个临床抗真菌药物（药理学名称）（5分）

54.糖尿病患者的术前评估及围手术期血糖的处理原则（6分）55.简述成分输血的概念及意义。（6分）56.SSI的全称是什么？包括哪些部位？（4分）57.大量输血有哪些主要并发症？（5分）58.简述营养支持方法的选择依据及原则。（7分）

59.围手术期发生下肢深静脉血栓形成的原因是什么？应当如何预防？（5分）

60.简述清创术的基本要求。

61.预防性使用抗生素有哪些适应症？（4分）62.你对手术区剃毛如何看待？

63.新鲜冰冻血浆和普通冰冻血浆的区别及临床适应症？ 脑外：

1.硬膜外血肿临床表现治疗原则

2.颞区硬膜外血肿表现（脑外）3.小脑幕切迹疝的临床表现 4.听神经瘤的临床表现和治疗？

5.颅内高压时改善脑血流的措施和降低颅内压的措施。6.颅高压诊治 7.小脑肿瘤分类诊治 8.何为血管源性脑水肿(4)9.丘脑下部损伤的症状及体征

10.试画出Langfitt容积/压力曲线，试述Langfitt试验的过程及临床意义

11.颅咽管瘤的术后并发症 12.脑水肿的分类和发病机理

13.垂体源性 Cushing‘s disease 内分泌学检查的临床意义。

14.（Glasgow Liege Coma Scale，GLCS）格拉斯哥-莱吉昏迷计分方法和临床意义。

15.都是以病例的形式，有个儿童颅后窝占位，还有个肿瘤S i p什么分期，问你手术过程中怎么判断是否切干净（太专科了，我只记得这么多）颈外：

1.结节性甲状腺肿诊断要点,治疗原则 2.甲亢手术较药物及放射性I治疗的优点(4)3.分化型甲状腺癌的初次手术治疗方法。

4.甲状腺手术并发症的喉上神经、喉返神经损伤的表现及处理 5.单纯性甲状腺肿的手术指针和手术方法？ 6.如何评价目前外科治疗甲状腺功能亢进症？ 7.单纯性甲状腺肿在什么情况下手术治疗 8.浸润性甲状腺癌淋巴结清扫原则？

9.甲状旁腺亢进根据临床症状分型及如何治疗 胸外：

1.纵隔肿瘤及分区二尖瓣狭窄手术指征（心外）

2.外伤性心包填塞的病因、急救处理原则。

3.二尖瓣狭窄并左心衰的临床表现及治疗 4.外伤性气胸的病理生理改变与剖胸探查指征？ 5.法乐氏四联症的病理改变，治疗原则。6.急诊冠脉搭桥术原理,适应症 7.二尖瓣狭窄诊治 8.典型食管癌的临床表现

9.什么是体外循环？体外循环后的生理学变化有哪些？ 10.详述三尖瓣锁闭的解剖分型。11.胸部肿瘤的转移途径及手术治疗 12.F4的发病机制及临床表现、手术治疗

13.常见的可行外科手术根治的先天性心脏病（不少于 7 种）及法洛 14.四联症的四种畸形。

15.影响食管癌外科治疗远期效果的主要因素有哪些？冠心病行CABG手术的指征

16.主动脉缩窄的分型和手术方式 17.开放性气胸的抢救要点？ 18.张力性气胸的治疗（4分）19.急症开胸探查指证是什么 乳腺：

1.乳腺癌术后辅助化疗的目地及适应症

2.请列举乳腺癌的手术方式，每种手术方式的适应征及切除范围。3.乳腺癌的手术方式及各种手术方式的适应症。4.乳腺癌的手术方法有哪些？（不包括姑息方法）5.乳腺癌辅助化疗的选择？

6.根据中国抗癌协会最新诊治指南与规范，乳腺癌哪些人群适宜保乳治疗，保乳治疗有哪些绝对禁忌症？（6分）

手外： 手急性化脓性腱鞘炎和深部间隙感染与解剖的关系？ 烧伤整形：

1.浅2度，深2度烧伤的鉴别，用表表示！2.烧伤创面早期切痂、削痂的病理生理学基础

3.什么是冷伤？冻结性冷伤的病例生理学和三度伤的局部临床表现 4.重度烧伤病人入院的处理 5.电烧伤的损伤机制和急救方式 6.烧伤的分级、分度 7.削痂植皮

8.瘢痕增生的可能因素。9.烧伤休克期切痂的必要性。

10.男性，26岁，70Kg，不慎被火焰烧伤部位如图示（烧伤分布图：Ⅱ度分布：右上臂全部，左大腿后部；Ⅲ度分布：正面躯干及左大腿前部；会阴部无烧伤）。无休克、吸入性损伤及复合伤，请计算其烧伤面积，评估烧伤严重程度，并试计算第一个24小时补液量。（6分）

11.人、兽咬伤的治疗要点包括哪些？（4分）血管外：

1.下肢血栓闭塞性脉管炎的临床分期 2.原发性下肢静脉瓣膜关闭不全的诊断和治疗 3.腹主动脉瘤的手术方式及注意事项 4.简述下肢动脉硬化闭塞症的治疗。5.下肢静脉曲张的手术方法有哪些？(手术治疗单纯性下肢浅静脉曲张的目的和方法)6.下肢深静脉血栓非手术治疗方法？

7.下肢深静脉血栓的保守治疗，及注意的事项？ 8.外周动脉瘤的治疗 9.周围动脉瘤的临床表现？

10.下肢静脉病变体格检查中、英文名称及各自临床意义（6分）11.颈动脉内膜切除术（CEA）治疗颈动脉严重狭窄手术有哪些绝对的和相对的适应证？有哪些禁忌证？（10分）12.深静脉血栓的非手术治疗 普外：

1.肝癌门静脉转移的临床病理生理 2.胃近端癌R2根治手术方法

3.腹股沟疝定义，里脱疝、瑞契疝定义及临床特点 4.肝门部胆管癌病理、临床表现、诊断 5.胆道出血病因及临床表现治疗（普外）6.吻合口溃疡病因及诊断

7.肝癌治疗新进展

8.上消化道出血剖腹探查的顺序。

9.胆管癌的病因，姑息治疗方法中你认为那种最好？ 10.应激性溃疡的治疗原则

11.肝功能分级及其临床意义 12.试述胎粪性腹膜炎的临床分型 13.结肠癌合并急性肠梗阻的处理原则 14.肝功能的Child分级。

15.嗜铬细胞瘤手术治疗的术前准备、术中术后注意事项。16.消化性溃疡穿孔修补术和根治术选择原则？ 17.胃癌BORRMANN分型

18.简述肝内胆管结石的治疗原则,如何治疗残留结石 19.肝功能分级 20.肝门肿瘤分类治疗

21.十二指肠损伤的特点是什么?伤后常见的死亡原因是什么 22.CHILD分级A级标准(5)23.上消化道出血的常见原因及治疗原则(12)

24.胃癌根治分级校准,D2胃窦癌的淋巴结分组及名称(10)

25.何种方法可确诊胆囊息肉?无症状息肉在何种情况下手术治疗(10)26.PPH中英文全称及手术适应症（6.5分）27.腺瘤恶变行肠切除术的指征

28.胆囊结石，胆囊息肉在什么情况下行胆囊切除术？ 29.急性结石性胆囊炎在什么情况下急诊手术治疗？

30.急性梗阻化脓性胆管炎有何种手术及非手术治疗方法？在何种情况下手术治疗？

31.何为GIST？试述其治疗进展？

32.胆道大出血的临床表现及特点，非手术治疗方法及手术指征 33.肝移植的基本适应症及基本手术方式 34.腹部损伤在什么情况下应考虑腹内脏器损伤 35.简述急性胆源性胰腺炎的治疗（10分）

36.对腹痛病人进行诊断时，应按什么程序进行急腹症的鉴别诊断思考（10分）

37.什么是内痔、外痔和混合痔？内痔的分期？对痔进行治疗时应遵循什么原则？

38.何为皮脂腺囊肿，临床特点。39.胃癌的PTNM分期（1987年）。40.结肠癌高危人群指标。41.胆管炎性狭窄的治疗原则。42.皮脂囊肿是属于什么囊肿及临床特点 43.原发性肝癌的治疗方式 44.结直肠癌的高危人群有有哪些？ 45.试述胃癌的pTNM分期（1987）（8分）

46.试述分化型甲状腺癌的首次手术方式及理由（7分）47.胆管炎性狭窄的治疗原则（5分）

48.简述腹部切口裂开的主要原因。有何表现？ 49.简述 Fast track surgery 及目的与主要措施。50.胆囊癌的 Nevin 分期以及手术方法。51.PPH 的概念、原理、手术适应症及优点。52.简述直肠癌根治手术的原则。53.急性梗阻性化脓性胆管炎的非手术治疗的措施有哪些？ 54.妊娠期急性阑尾炎的外科治疗措施？ 55.胆囊切除术后综合症的原因？

56.良性十二指肠瘀滞症定义，原因，及钡餐表现？ 57.肝内胆管结石的分型，治疗

58.胃癌根治术，根治术的分级方法，D2手术的范围 59.儿茶酚胺症的原因及临床表现？

60.Crohn disease 外科治疗适应症及手术原则？ 61.PEG中英文全称及适应症？

62.肝门部胆管癌的Bismuth-Corlett分型及手术方法选择？（10’）63.TME的概念及手术原则？（10’）

64.直肠癌的流行病学特点，直肠癌的转移途径

65.肝外胆管结石，行胆总管切开取石+T管引流术后应观察哪些征象，何时做胆肠吻合术

66.门静脉断流手术的方式，和效果？

67.胆道出血的临床表现特点？保守治疗方式，及何时采取手术治疗？（10分）

68.腹腔镜治疗的禁忌症？

69.GIST的中、英文名称？诊断要点？ 70.腹腔镜治疗腹股沟疝的方式，及优点？ 71.急性化脓性梗阻性胆管炎的治疗? 72.胃肠间质瘤的治疗进展？ 73.术后伤口裂开的原因及表现？ 74.胆囊息肉的手术切除指标？ 75.阑尾炎转移性右下腹痛的机制？

76.急性机械性肠梗阻的水电解质酸碱平衡失调的类型？ 77.胆源性胰腺炎的治疗？ 78.胰岛素瘤的临床表现？

79.肝硬化食管静脉曲张出血的非手术治疗的措施？贲门周围血管离断术治疗出血的原因（8分）

80.先天性胆管囊性扩张症的临床分型（5分）81.黑色素瘤的临床表现（4分）82.腹腔镜胃癌根治术的禁忌症（5分）

83.CEA, AFP, CA125，CA199，PSA的中文名及各自的临床应用（5分

84.预防术后手术伤口裂开的措施（5分）

85.原发性肝胆管结石病有哪些主要的病理改变？（10分）86.简述GIST的手术适应症及转移复发的处理。（10分）87.简述腹腔镜手术相关的特殊并发症及预防措施。（6分）移植外科：

1.移植抗原有哪几种？肾移植免疫学的选择需作哪些检查 2.有哪些主要因素影响肝恶性肿瘤肝移植术后疗效 3.原位肝移植后的胆道并发症 4.肾移植临床排斥反应的类型和病理 5.肝移植术后发生中远期肾功能不全及肾衰竭的相关因素，如何处理？（10’）

6.肾移植术后外科并发症及内科远期并发症。（10’）7.B细胞在排斥反应中的作用；

8.急性排斥反应的临床表现和病理特征。9.那些因素影响肾移植效果？

10.肝移植急性排斥反应有哪些病理学特征？ 11.腹腔间隔室综合征的临床表现及治疗原则 12.Fast tract surgery 概念意义及看法

13.胃癌行标准远端胃大部切除（D2淋巴结清扫）后，行术后辅助化疗有哪些情况？

14.列举3个胰腺内分泌肿瘤及各自临床症状 15.腹部切口裂开的原因 泌尿外：

1.膀胱肿瘤病理分期 2.尿道损伤的治疗原则 3.前列腺癌诊断

4.骨结核好发部位、治疗原则

5.睾丸肿瘤标记（泌尿外）

6.肾癌与肾盂肾癌鉴别诊断

7.睾丸生殖系肿瘤的分类及治疗原则。8.BPH的病理改变及鉴别诊断 9.泌尿系梗阻的常见原因及诊断治疗原则（以上尿路结石为例）10.急性肾盂肾炎诊断治疗要点 11.睾丸肿瘤分类治疗 12.肾癌的肾外症状(5)13.BPH和前列腺癌好发部位及鉴别(10)14.何为血尿，镜下血尿，肉眼血尿（4分）15.简述前列腺癌的分期

16.如何从肉眼血尿区分出血部位（4.5分）17.输尿管囊肿的诊断和处理 18.试述肾嗜铬细胞瘤的诊断要点 19.肾盂癌的诊断及手术治疗方法。20.肾盂肿瘤的临床表现及治疗 21.膀胱癌的T分期，诊断 22.肾癌的肾外表现 23.包茎可能带来那些危害？

24.诱发泌尿生殖系感染的因素主要包括那些方面？ 25.泌尿外科常用哪些诊断性器械检查？ 26.肾癌可能出现哪些肾外的临床表现？ 27.嗜铬细胞瘤的术前准备应包括哪些内容？ 28.双侧上尿路结石的手术治疗原则 29.睾丸肿瘤的标记物，临床表现和治疗 30.闭合性肾损伤的外科手术指针？ 31.肾积脓的概念？

32.肌层非侵润性膀胱肿瘤的治疗原则有哪些？（10分）33.肾肿瘤的肾外表现有哪些？（4分）34.保留肾单位手术的适应症有哪些？（6分）35.输尿管镜取石术的常见并发症？如何处理？ 36.男性不育症中睾丸后影响因素有哪些？ 37.慢性前列腺炎/慢性骨盆疼痛综合征的临床表现 38.急性尿潴留的原因？

39.影像学在尿路结石中的作用（8分）40.简述医源性输尿管损伤的原因。（8分）41.男性不育的定义及原因 42.泌尿系影像学检查方法及意义 43.肾结核血尿特点及鉴别诊断 小儿外科：

1.先天性肛管直肠畸形的分类 2.尿道下裂的病理表现

3.先天性胆管扩张症囊肿型与梭型、柱状型在病因和并发症方面有什么不同？

4.先天性胆管扩张症手术方法如何选择？

5.小儿先天性肾积水的常见部位、原因、及临床症状，6.B超、CT、MRI和静脉肾盂造影的作用。7.尿道下裂的诊治，理由 8.先天性十二指肠梗阻的X线表现，引起梗阻的三种疾病，手术方式和原因 骨外：

1.肱骨髁上骨折的治疗原则

2.全髋关节置换适应症、禁忌症及并发症

3.骨折愈合临床标准（骨外）

4.脊柱侧弯定义分类治疗

5.L4椎体滑脱的治疗原则。

6.脊柱侧弯

7.应力缓冲效应

8.人工关节松动的原因

9.特发性脊柱侧弯中，结构性侧弯和非结构性侧弯的区别。10.颈椎病手术指征？前后入路选择？

11.脊髓压迫症的自然病程分期,每期临床表现特点 12.如何诊断腰椎不稳 13.脊柱侧弯分类 14.骨巨细胞瘤诊治

15.肱骨髁上骨折分型及手术适应症(7)16.膝关节半月板损伤的临床表现及诊断(10)17.临床上如何鉴别L3／Ｌ4，L4／L5，L5／S1腰椎间盘突出？（分）

18.简述股骨头缺血性坏死的Ficat分期（6分）

919.简述骨折不愈合的定义及X线片特点（6分）20.骨关节炎的诊断和治疗

21.试述人工膝关节置换术后的并发症

22.老年股骨颈骨折的治疗目标、治疗方式选择及理由 23.颈椎过伸损伤的发病机制、临床表现、治疗原则 24.2岁先天性髋关节脱位临床表现、X光表现及治疗原则 25.先天性马蹄内翻足治疗原则。26.股骨头缺血性坏死的 Ficat 分期。27.简述腕管综合症的主要临床表现。28.骨折延迟愈合定义，原因，及X线表现？ 29.孟氏骨折概念和分型？

30.腰椎滑脱的病因分类，诊断和治疗 31.膝关节半月板损伤的临床表现，诊断和治疗 32.肱骨髁上骨折的分型及并发症？ 33.骨折愈合的局部影响因素？ 34.髋关节前脱位的临床表现？ 35.骨折的早期并发症？

36.3-7岁DDH治疗原则（10分）

37.恶性骨肿瘤保肢手术的适应症及重建方式（10分）38.腰椎间盘突出症术后再手术的原因（10分）39.股骨粗隆间骨折的治疗选择。（4分）40.运动系统慢性损伤的特点？ 41.一个患者被车撞后左小腿中断皮肤挫裂伤2*5cm，无血管、神经、肌腱损伤。请给出诊断，并给出AO分型及gustilo-Anderson分型。请详述gustilo-Anderson分型。

42.恶性骨肿瘤分型及对应治疗原则

43.腰椎盘突出、腰椎管狭窄、腰椎滑脱三者诊断及鉴别诊断

中山大学2012年考博试题 外科 简答题70分

等渗性缺水5%的临床表现？ 胆囊息肉的手术切除指标？ 阑尾炎转移性右下腹痛的机制？

急性机械性肠梗阻的水电解质酸碱平衡失调的类型？ 胆源性胰腺炎的治疗？ 乳腺癌辅助化疗的选择？ 胰岛素瘤的临床表现？ 什么是脓毒症和菌血症？ 骨折的早期并发症？ 术后伤口裂开的原因及表现？ 周围动脉瘤的临床表现？ 急性尿潴留的原因？ 问答题：30分（普外）

4.医学考博英语历年真题摘要写作 篇四

97年题

A Blind Zone in Childr-Nutrition

This article reveals a mistaken idea in child-raising which deserves correcting.Most parents take it for granted that children should eat more animal foods such as chicken, meat and fish than grain food because the former are far more expensive and the more expensive the food is the more nutritious it is.However, this is, in fact, a mistaken idea which has lead to malnutrition among many city kids.This is indicated in a survey recently made in Shanghai.What parents don’t know is that carbohydrate in grains, starch and sugar, the main and most inexpensive nutrient for energy supply, is of equal importance in metabolism.The energy it supplies is the main source of calories in human bodies,about 60% of the total amount of calories.If there is a lack of calories provided by carbohydrate, protein and fat will be used up to provide the heat and thus can’t play their original roles in the body.Consequently, it results in a retarded development in the children and even malnutrition.Apparently, the solution to the problem is to provide kids with a well-balanced food containing protein, carbohydrate and many other nutrients, none of which can be done without.Writing Drill 4(98 FATMD)

In the past several years, many Chinese college students have come to accept psychological consultation(PC)they used to reject.In 1994, many students didn’t care to think about the consultation while in 1996, over 90% of 2132 students in a survey answered the related questionnaires carefully.PC is now gradually accepted by college students in China.Surveys indicate that 70-80% college students have psychological problems and 20.3% have such obstacles.There have been reports on many severe cases resulting from misunderstanding and lack of PC.In view of this, many universities in Nanjing have set up psychological healthcare service for students.Many students have corrected their misunderstanding about PC and bravely asked the consultants for help, which has greatly helped them overcome their mental obstacles.Even some military cadets have begun to consult experts for advice.Experts point out that prompt consultation can prevent mental problems from developing into obstacles, mental illnesses and even suicide.University psychological consultation, young as it is, has made remarkable progress and grown into a unique course in universities.Though it contributed to students’ healthy growth, it still has a long way to go to be fully understood and appreciated by both students and faculties.Writing Drill 5 老年健康饮食为先

Aging usually brings about recession in many bodily functions such indigestion, hypertension, arteriosclerosis, and other metabolic dysfunctions.However, scientists find that these hypofunctions are actually caused by irrational diets or eating habits.This article discusses this problem and the solution to it.First, balanced diet with more vegetables than animal food is especially good for the old people.Second, less staple food and less salt in food should be suggested for the aged because overconsumption of these two can lead to cardiovascular diseases.Third, more bean food can replace proteins such as eggs and fat as sources of protein.Fourth, light food should be taken in instead of fat and oily foods which usually contribute to cardiovascular diseases.Fifth, doctors always advise people eat more fruit to regulate their digestion, metabolism and cardiovascular balance.In a word, a balanced diet, more vegetable food instead of fat food are of the first significance to the health of the aged and a long life.Writing Drill 6

Recently, more attention has been paid to a behavioral prescription for various and physical diseases.It includes laughter, sports, dancing and even crying.These methods have different functions.Laughter activates over 80 muscles.In laughing, smooth muscles in organs contract and help improve digestion.Crying can give vent to harmful chemicals in the body accumulated by stress.Sports and dancing can relieve chronic illness such as bronchitis, back pain, diabetes, etc.that medication alone can’t do.2013年医学考博英语正确的复习方法：http:///product/PR000082 2013年医学考博英语协议全程班：http:///product/PR000276

5.南京大学考博真题 篇五

Read the following passage carefully and write a summary of it in English in about 150 words.Meaning and Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance The word(过于具体)Renaissance means “rebirth.”(与下文重复)A number of people who lived in(过于具体)Italy between 1350 and 1550 believed that they had witnessed(过于具体)a rebirth of antiquity or Greco-Roman civilization, marking a new age.To them, the thousand or so years between the end of the Roman Empire and their own era was a middle period(hence the “Middle Ages”), characterized by darkness because of its lack of classic culture(铺垫).Historians of the nineteenth century later used similar terminology to describe this period in Italy.(铺垫)The Swiss historian and art critic Jacob Burckhardt created the modern concept of the Renaissance in his celebrated Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy published in 1860(举例).He portrayed Italy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries as the birthplace of the modern world(the Italians were “the firstborn among the sons of modern Europe”)(与前文重复)and saw the revival of antiquity, “the perfecting of the individual,” and secularism as its distinguishing features.Burckhardt exaggerated the individuality and secularism of the Renaissance and failed to recognize the depths of its religious sentiment（详细陈述或让步）;nevertheless, he established the framework for all modern interpretations of the Renaissance（与主题不直接相联）.Although contemporary scholars do not believe that the Renaissance represents a sudden or dramatic cultural break with the Middle Ages, as Burckhardt argued—there was, after all, much continuity in economic, political, and social life between the two periods（让步）—the Renaissance can still be viewed as a distinct period of European history that manifested itself first in Italy and then spread to the rest of Europe.Renaissance Italy was largely an urban society.As a result of its commercial preeminence and political evolution, northern Italy by the mid-fourteenth century was mostly a land of independent cities that dominated the country districts around them.These city-states became the centers of Italian political, economic, and social life.Within this new urban society,（铺垫，或属于次要原因）a secular spirit emerged as increasing wealth created new possibilities for the enjoyment of worldly things.Above all, the Renaissance was an age of recovery from the “calamitous fourteenth century.” Italy and Europe began a slow process of recuperation from the effects of the Black Death, political disorder, and economic recession（详细陈述或举例论证）.This recovery was accompanied by a rebirth of the culture of classical antiquity.Increasingly aware of their own historical past, Italian intellectuals became intensely interested in the Greco-Roman culture of the ancient Mediterranean world.This new revival of classical antiquity(the Middle Ages had in fact preserved much of ancient Latin culture)affected activities as diverse as politics and art and led to new attempts to reconcile the pagan philosophy of the Greco-Roman world with Christian thought, as well as new ways of viewing human beings.（后果延伸）

A revived emphasis on individual ability became characteristic of the Italian Renaissance.As the fifteenth-century Florentine architect Leon Battista Alberti expressed it: “Man can do all things if they will.”（举例）A high regard for human dignity and worth and a realization of individual potentiality created a new social ideal of the well-rounded personality or universal person who was capable of achievements in many areas of life.（后果延伸）These general features of the Italian Renaissance were not characteristic of all Italians but were primarily the preserve of the wealthy upper classes, who constituted a small percentage of the total population（详细陈述）.The achievements of the Italian Renaissance were the product of an elite, rather than a mass, movement.（与上文重复）Nevertheless, indirectly it did have some impact on ordinary people, especially in the cities, where so many of the intellectual and artistic accomplishments of the period were most visible.（详细陈述或属于不重要修饰语

（2006）

（2005）

Read the following passage carefully and then write a summary of it in English in about 150 words

A tool is an implement or device used directly upon a piece of material to shape it into a desired form.The date of the earliest tools is extremely remote.Tools found in northern Kenya in 1969 have been estimated to be about 2600000 years old, and their state of development suggests that even older tools remain to be discovered.The present array of tools has as common ancestors the sharpened stones that were the keys to early human survival.Rudely fractured stones, first found and later “made” by hunters who needed a general-purpose tool, were a “knife” of sorts that could also be used to hack, to pound, and to grub.In the course of a vast interval of time, a variety of single-purpose tools came into being.With the twin developments of agriculture and animal domestication, roughly 10000 years ago.The many demands of a settled way of life led to a higher degree of tool specialization;the identities of the ax, adz, chisel, and saw were clearly established more than 4000 years ago.The common denominator of these tools is removal of material from a workpiece, usually by some form of cutting.The presence of a cutting edge is therefore characteristic of most tools.And the principal concern of toolmakers has been the pursuit and creation of improved cutting edges.Tool effectiveness was enhanced enormously by hafting---the fitting of a handle to a piece of sharp stone, which endowed the tool with better control, more energy, or both.It is helpful to draw the distinction between hand and machine tools.Hand tools are those used by craftsmen in manual operations, such as chopping, chiseling, sawing, filing, or forging.Complementary tools, often needed as auxiliaries to the shaping tools, include such implements as the hammer for nailing and the vise for holding.A craftsman may also use instruments that facilitate accurate measurements: the rule, divider, square, and others.Power tools---usually hand-held, motor-powered implements such as the electric drill or electric saw---perform many of the old manual operations and as such may be considered hand tools.Machine tools are analogous to hand tools in their function as shaping implements, but they require stationary mounting and mechanical drive for the working of strong materials, primarily metal, and the mass processing of precision parts.During the evolution of tools over more than 2000000 years, using as principal materials, successively, stone, bronze, and iron, humans developed a number of particular tools.Taken together, these specialized tools form an inverted pyramid resting upon the first general-purpose tool.The nearly formless chopper.With the discovery of metals and the support of numerous inventions allowing their exploitation, the first approximations to the modern forms of the basic tools of the craftsman established themselves, with the main thrust of further development directed at improving the cutting edges.The earliest tools were multipurpose;specialized tools were latecomers.A multipurpose tool, although able to do a number of things, does none of them as well as a tool designed or proportioned for one job and one material.（2004）

Read the following passage carefully and then write a summary of it in English in about 120 words.The success of failure of a company abroad depends on how effectively its employees can exercise their skills in a new location.That ability will depend on both their job-related expertise and the individual’s sensitivity and responsiveness to the new cultural environment.One of the most common factors contributing to failure in international business assignments is the erroneous assumption that if a person is successful in the home environment, he or she will be equally successful in applying technical expertise in a different culture.Research has shown that failures in the overseas business setting most frequently result from an inability to understand and adapt to foreign ways of thinking and acting rather than from technical or professional incompetence.At home U.S.businesspeople equip themselves with vast amount of knowledge of their employees, customers, and business partners.Market research provides detailed information on values, attitudes, and buying preferences of U.S, consumers;middle-and upper-level managers are well versed in the intricacies of their organization’s culture;and labor negotiators must be highly sensitive to what motivates those on the other side of the table.Yet when North Americans turn to the international arena, they frequently are willing to deal with customers, employees, and fellow workers with a lack of information that at home would be unimaginable.The literature on international business is filled with examples of business miscues when U.S.corporations attempted to operate in an international context.Some are mildly amusing.Others are downright embarrassing.All of them, to one degree or another, have been costly in terns of money, reputation, or both.For example, when American firms try to market their products in other countries, they often assume that if a marketing strategy or slogan is effective in Cleveland, it will be equally effective in other parts of the world.But problems arise when cultural context changes.Just as inattention to the cultural context can result in some costly blunders in marketing and management, it also can affect seriously the success of international business negotiations.Time, effort, reputation, and even contracts can be lost because of cultural ignorance.The world is changing faster than most of us can calculate, and if American businesspersons are to meet the challenges of an increasingly interdependent world, they will need to develop a better understanding of how cultural variables influence international business enterprises.A healthy dialogue between cultures and members of the international business community will be an important step in achieving that needed understanding.(2003)Read the following passage carefully and then write a summary of it in English in about 120 words.Europe was the first of the major world regions to develop a modern economy based on commercial agriculture and industrial development.Its successful modernization can be traced to the continent’s rich endowment of economic resources, its history of innovations, the evolution of a skilled and educated labour force, and the interconnectedness of all its parts-both naturally existing and man-made—which facilitated the easy movement of massive quantities of raw materials and finished goods and the communication of ideas.Europe’s economic modernization began with a marked improvement in agriculture output in the 17th century, particularly in England.The traditional method of cultivation involved periodically allowing land to remain fallow;this gave way to continuous cropping on fields that were fertilized with nature from animals raised as food for rapidly expanding urban markets.Greater wealth was accumulated by landowners at the same time that fewer farmhands were needed to work the land.The accumulated capital and abundant cheap labour created by this revolution in agriculture fueled the development of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.The revolution vegan in northern England in the 1730s with the development of water-driven machinery to spin and weave wool and cotton.By mid-century James Watt had developed a practical steam engine that emancipated machinery from sites adjacent to waterfalls and rapids.Britain had been practically deforested by this time, and the incessant demand for more fuel to run the engines led to the exploitation of coal as a major industry.Industries were built on the coalfields to minimize the cost of transporting coal over long distances.The increasingly surplus rural population flocked to the new manufacturing areas.Canals and other improvements in the transportation infrastructure were made in these regions, which made them attractive to other industries that were not necessarily dependent on coal and thus prompted development in adjacent regions.Industrialization outside of England began in the mid-19th century in Belgium and northeastern France and spread to Germany, the Netherlands, southern Scandinavia, and other areas in conjunction with the construction of railways.By the 1870s the governments of the European nations had recognized the vital importance of factory production and had taken steps to encourage local development through subsidies and tariff protection against foreign competition.Large areas, however, remained virtually untouched by modern industrial development, including most of the Iberian Peninsula, southern Italy, and a broad belt of eastern Europe extending from the Balkans on the south to Finland and northern Scandinavia.During the 20the century Europe has experienced periods of considerable economic growth and prosperity, and industrial development has proliferated much more widely throughout the continent;but continued economic development in Europe has been handicapped to a large degree by its multinational character—which has spawned economic rivalries among states and two devastating world wars-as well as by the exhaustion of many of its resources and by increased economic competition from overseas.Governmental protectionism, which has tended to restrict the potential market for a product to a single country, has deprived many industrial concerns of the efficiencies of large-scale production serving a mass market(such as is found in the United States).In addition, enterprise efficiency has suffered from government support and from a lack of competition within a national market area.Within individual countries there have been growing tensions between regions that have prospered and those that have not.This “core-periphery” problem has been particularly acute in situations where the contrasting regions are inhabited by different ethnic groups.（2002）

Read the following passage carefully and then write a summary of it in English in about 120 words.Developments in 19th century Europe are bounded by two great events.The French Revolution broke out in 1789, and its effects reverberated throughout much of Europe for many decades.World War I began in 1914.Its inception resulted from many trends in European society, culture, and diplomacy during the late 19th century.In between these boundaries---the one opening a new set of trends, the other bringing long-standing tensions to a head---much of modern Europe was defined.Europe during this 125-year span was both united and deeply divided.A number of basic cultural trends, including new literary styles and the spread of science, ran through the entire continent.European states were increasingly locked in diplomatic interaction, culminating in continentwide alliance system after 1871.At the same time, this was the century of growing nationalism, in which individual states jealously protected their identities and indeed established more rigorous border controls than ever before.Finally, the European continent was to an extent divided between two zones of differential development.Changes such as the Industrial Revolution and political liberalization spread first and fastest in western Europe---Britain, France, the Low Countries, Scandinavia, and, to an extent, Germany and Italy.Eastern and southern Europe, more rural at the outset of the period, changed more slowly and in somewhat different ways.Europe witnessed important common patterns and increasing interconnections, but these developments must be assessed in terms of nation-state divisions and, even more, of larger regional differences.Some trends, including the ongoing impact of the French Revolution, ran through virtually the entire 19th century.Other characteristics, however, had a shorter life span.Some historians prefer to divide 19th century history into relatively small chunks.Thus 1789-1815 is defined by the French Revolution and Napoleon;1815-48 forms a period of reaction and adjustment;1848-71 is dominated by a new round of revolution and the unifications of the German and Italian nations;and 1871-1914, an age of imperialism, is shaped by new kinds of political debate and the pressures that culminated in war.Overriding these important markers, however, a simpler division can also be useful.Between 1789 and 1849 Europe dealt with the forces of political revolution and the first impact of the Industrial Revolution.Between 1849 and 1914 a fuller industrial society emerged, including new forms of states and of diplomatic and military alignments.The mid-19th century, in either formulation, looms as a particularly important point of transition within the extended 19th century.(2008)

build up ,and like some magnificent structure without foundation.Answer:（2007）

（2006）

Finland, an enormous land of unspoiled lakes and forests, nourishes Finnic genius of commitmen and coexistence with nature.The basic nucleus of the Finnic population are Finns coming from the Urals in the early century of the Christian age.Being such short history, Finland does not have enormous number of work of art, but it is still possible to meet craftsman in Savonlinna who are working according to the old techniques.Glas, which is a typical Finnish product, seems to sum up the characteristics of the world from which it originates: purity, simplicity, and a sense of nature.The forests and waters inspire contemporary works of art;and the meditative soul of the Finns, who blend in with nature, is nourished by these fresh color.Near Leiksa, an extraordinary sculptor working with wood is one of the example of contemporary artists who is inspired by nature.（2005）

A tool is a device use directly upon a piece of material to shape it into a desired form.The date of the earliest toll is extremely remote.Stones as tool were the keys to early human survival.The twin development of agriculture and animal domestication developed the general-purpose tool into single-purpose tool.Generally speaking, tools are removal of material from workplace.It is helpful to draw the distinction between hand and machine tools.Hand tools are those used by craftsmen in manual operations.Machine tools are complementary to hand tools in their functions, but they require stationary, mounting and mechanical drive for the working of strong materials, primarily metal, and the mass processing of precision parts.The earliest tools were multipurpose;specialized tools were latecomers.（2004）

(2003)Europe was the first of the major world regions to develop a modern economy.Its successful modernization facilitated the movement of raw materials and finished goods and the communication of ideas.Concerning the time, it first began in the 17th century.The traditional method of cultivation involved allowing land to remain fallow thus fewer farmlands were needed to work the land and the accumulated capital and labor created by this revolution fueled the development of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.Industrialization outside of England began in the mid-19th century in Belgium and spread to some of the other European countries.Although they had recognized the importance of factory production and had taken steps to encourage local development, there still existed large areas untouched by modern in industrial development.During the 20th century Europe has experienced periods of economic growth and prosperity, but continued economic development in Europe has been handicapped to a large degree by its multinational character.（2002）（2008）